Saturday, September 6, 2008

Declaration Approved in Independence Hall


This is the room in Independence Hall (then known as the Pennsylvania State House Building) where the Second Continental Congress met, debated, and eventually voted to declare independence from Great Britain on July 2, 1776. On July 4, 1776, the delegates, after a couple of days of debate and editing of Thomas Jefferson's draft, approved the Declaration of Independence.

Sunday, August 31, 2008

Martin Van Buren: First President Not Born a British Subject


Martin Van Buren, our 8th president, was the first president born after the adoption of the Declaration of Independence, and thus the first president not born a British subject. He was born on December 5, 1782, more than six years after July 4, 1776 when the Second Continental Congress voted to approve the Declaration of Independence, and split from Great Britain.

All of the previous seven U.S. presidents were born prior to July 4, 1776:

  • George Washington: February 22, 1732
  • John Adams: October 30, 1735
  • Thomas Jefferson: April 13, 1743
  • James Madison: March 16, 1751
  • James Monroe: April 28, 1758
  • John Quincy Adams: July 11, 1767
  • Andrew Jackson: March 15, 1767

But Van Buren was not the last U.S. president not born a British subject. William Henry Harrison, who only served one month as president before becoming the first president to die in office, was born on February 9, 1773. Harrison had just turned 68 less than a month before his inauguration. He was the oldest man to take the oath of office up until that time.

Beginning with John Tyler (10th president) and later, all of our presidents were born after July 4, 1776.

Happy 100th Birthday, LBJ!


Wednesday, August 27, 2008 was the 100th anniversary of the birth of Lyndon Baines Johnson, the 36th President of the United States. LBJ was born in Stonewall, Texas.

LBJ’s Ranch in Stonewall, where the president maintained what was known as the Texas White House, during the time he was president from 1963 to 1969, has received a makeover from the National Park Service. They have restored LBJ’s working office.

For more information, see the article in the Austin American-Statesman newspaper, or the website of the LBJ Ranch.

Thursday, August 21, 2008

Chronology of Revolutionary War Era


We all know about the Declaration of Independence, the Boston Tea Party, Paul Revere's midnight ride, the Revolutionary War, and the Constitution. But how did it all fit together and when did these and other key events in our nation's founding take place? The following brief description and chronology helps to place it all in context, within three broad bands of time.

  1. Rising Taxes and Tensions
  2. The Colonies Respond
  3. A New Nation

Rising Taxes and Tensions: Broadly speaking, starting in 1764, there was a decade of increasingly rising tensions between the colonies and Great Britain, caused by rising taxes imposed by King George III and Parliament. The colonists, of course, protested with the rallying cry of "taxation without representation is tyranny." During this period, the first blood was shed with the Boston Massacre in 1770 in which British troops, taunted by Bostonians gathered to protest repressive measures, opened fire, killing five. In late 1773, Boston hosted the famous Boston Tea Party in which colonists, dressed as Indians, boarded ships in Boston harbor and dumped thousands of dollars of tea from England into the frigid waters, a protest against the Tea Act.

The Colonies Respond: In September 1774, with tensions between the mother country and the colonies at an all time high, representatives from twelve of the thirteen colonies assembled in Philadelphia to develop a strategy for how to respond to Great Britain. Georgia did not send any representatives to what we call the First Continental Congress. When they adjourned, they agreed to meet again in the spring of the following year.

But when they assembled in May of 1775, the situation most on their minds was the opening of what we now call the Revolutionary War - a six and a half year battle fought by thirteen independent colonies with a ragtag army against the world's greatest military power. Three weeks prior to the convening of the Second Continental Congress, also held in Philadelphia, the battles of Lexington and Concord had been fought.

They began when 700 Redcoats marched out of Boston intent on capturing revolutionary leaders such as Sam Adams, John Hancock, and Elbridge Gerry, and capturing arsenal and weapons stored up by the colonists. On the night of April 18, 1775, Paul Revere made his famous midnight ride through the Boston countryside warning residents that the British were coming. Elbridge Gerry had just enough time to flee his house in his pajamas and hide in a nearby corn field before British troops arrived at his house and search it for him, but he was safely hidden.

When the Redcoats arrived at Lexington, they were greeted by 70 minutemen, colonists who had taken up arms to defend themselves. The British opened fired on the morning of April 19, 1776, the "shot heard round the world."

For a whole year, the Second Continental Congress debated what to do. There were conservatives, led by John Dickinson of Pennsylvania, who were pushing for reconciliation with Great Britain, but an increasingly large number of delegates were leaning to declaring independence. It was a revolutionary thought - and a dangerous one. It constituted treason against the King. In fact, in August 1775, King George declared his intention to suppress the "revolution and bring the traitors to justice."

A New Nation: Fourteen long months passed from the start of the Second Continental Congress until July 4, 1776 when Congress approved the Declaration of Independence. But nations don't suddenly spring into existence just by a declaration.

It would not be until March of 1781 when the ill-fated Articles of Confederation were implemented, setting up a loose government in which the individual colonies (now states) were sovereign. During all this time, George Washington's Continental Army continued fighting the British, or in some cases avoided fighting the British just to remain alive for another day. But then in October 1781 came the shocking surrender of the British forces under General Cornwallis at Yorktown. The Revolutionary War was over, but the nation was still in childbirth.

The new nation struggled under the Articles of Confederation, negotiated a treaty with Great Britain ending the war, and finally, in 1787 convened what we now know as the Constitutional Convention, also in Philadelphia. Originally convened to fix the flaws of the Articles of Confederation, the delegates soon came to realize that it couldn't be fixed and required a total re-write. It took until June of 1788 for nine states to ratify the new Constitution. And then it wasn't until April 30, 1789 that George Washington finally took the oath of office as the first president of the United States.

While it took fourteen months for the Second Continental Congress to eventually declare independence, fourteen long years passed from the start of the Revolutionary War at Lexington until the inauguration of Washington as president.

It's easy for us, 222 years on this side of history, to think that the birth of the United States was somehow a pre-ordained event. But the history that we know so well was once someone else's present time - and the men at the First and Second Continental Congresses and at the Constitutional Convention, and the troops under George Washington, were filled with uncertainty, with doubts, and with fears about how events would eventually unfold. It's not much different for us as we live through history-making events, or even events in our own lives.

Rising Taxes and Tensions

1764

Sugar Act

  • Tax on molasses imported from anywhere outside the British Empire

1765

Stamp Act

  • Tax on stamps on all legal documents

1767

Townshend Acts

  • Tax on colonial imports of British goods

March 5, 1770

Boston Massacre

1773

Tea Act

Dec. 16, 1773

Boston Tea Party

1774

Intolerable Acts (Coercive Acts)

  • Closed Boston Harbor
  • Stationed British troops in Boston

The Colonies Respond

September 1774

First Continental Congress

April 18, 1775

Paul Revere’s midnight ride

April 19, 1775

Start of Revolutionary War

  • Battles of Lexington and Concord

May 10, 1775

Second Continental Congress convenes in Philadelphia

A New Nation

July 2, 1776

Resolution on independence approved by Congress

July 4, 1776

Declaration of Independence adopted by Congress

August 2, 1776

Declaration of Independence signed by most members of Congress

March 1, 1781

Articles of Confederation implemented

October 19, 1781

End of Revolutionary War

  • Surrender of Cornwallis to Washington at Yorktown

Sept. 17, 1787

Constitution signed by delegates to the Constitutional Convention

June 1788

Constitution ratified by 9 states

April 30, 1789

George Washington inaugurated as first president under the Constitution

Wednesday, August 20, 2008

Original Draft of Declaration of Independence


The following is the "original rough draught" of the Declaration of Independence by Thomas Jefferson before the Second Continental Congress painfully forced Jefferson to watch his work edited by the Committee of the Whole from July 2nd through 4th, 1776. The Congress approved the edited version on July 4, 1776.

A Declaration of the Representatives of the UNITED STATES OF AMERICA, in General Congress assembled.

When in the course of human events it becomes necessary for a people to advance from that subordination in which they have hitherto remained, & to assume among the powers of the earth the equal & independant station to which the laws of nature & of nature's god entitle them, a decent respect to the opinions of mankind requires that they should declare the causes which impel them to the change.

We hold these truths to be sacred & undeniable; that all men are created equal & independant, that from that equal creation they derive rights inherent & inalienable, among which are the preservation of life, & liberty, & the pursuit of happiness; that to secure these ends, governments are instituted among men, deriving their just powers from the consent of the governed; that whenever any form of government shall become destructive of these ends, it is the right of the people to alter or to abolish it, & to institute new government, laying it's foundation on such principles & organising it's powers in such form, as to them shall seem most likely to effect their safety & happiness. prudence indeed will dictate that governments long established should not be changed for light & transient causes: and accordingly all experience hath shewn that mankind are more disposed to suffer while evils are sufferable, than to right themselves by abolishing the forms to which they are accustomed. but when a long train of abuses & usurpations, begun at a distinguished period, & pursuing invariably the same object, evinces a design to subject them to arbitrary power, it is their right, it is their duty, to throw off such government & to provide new guards for their future security. such has been the patient sufferance of these colonies; & such is now the necessity which constrains them to expunge their former systems of government. the history of his present majesty, is a history of unremitting injuries and usurpations, among which no one fact stands single or solitary to contradict the uniform tenor of the rest, all of which have in direct object the establishment of an absolute tyranny over these states. to prove this, let facts be submitted to a candid world, for the truth of which we pledge a faith yet unsullied by falsehood.

he has refused his assent to laws the most wholesome and necessary for the public good:

he has forbidden his governors to pass laws of immediate & pressing importance, unless suspended in their operation till his assent should be obtained; and when so suspended, he has neglected utterly to attend to them.

he has refused to pass other laws for the accomodation of large districts of people unless those people would relinquish the right of representation, a right inestimable to them, formidable to tyrants alone:

he has dissolved Representative houses repeatedly & continually, for opposing with manly firmness his invasions on the rights of the people:

he has refused for a long space of time to cause others to be elected, whereby the legislative powers, incapable of annihilation, have returned to the people at large for their exercise, the state remaining in the mean time exposed to all the dangers of invasion from without, & convulsions within:

he has endeavored to prevent the population of these states; for that purpose obstructing the laws for naturalization of foreigners; refusing to pass others to encourage their migrations hither; & raising the conditions of new appropriations of lands:

he has suffered the administration of justice totally to cease in some of these colonies, refusing his assent to laws for establishing judiciary powers:

he has made our judges dependant on his will alone, for the tenure of their offices, and amount of their salaries:

he has erected a multitude of new offices by a self-assumed power, & sent hither swarms of officers to harrass our people & eat out their substance:

he has kept among us in times of peace standing armies & ships of war:

he has affected to render the military, independant of & superior to the civil power:

he has combined with others to subject us to a jurisdiction foreign to our constitutions and unacknoleged by our laws; giving his assent to their pretended acts of legislation, for quartering large bodies of armed troops among us;

for protecting them by a mock-trial from punishment for any murders they should commit on the inhabitants of these states;

for cutting off our trade with all parts of the world;

for imposing taxes on us without our consent;

for depriving us of the benefits of trial by jury;

for transporting us beyond seas to be tried for pretended offences: for taking away our charters, & altering fundamentally the forms of our governments;

for suspending our own legislatures & declaring themselves invested with power to legislate for us in all cases whatsoever:

he has abdicated government here, withdrawing his governors, & declaring us out of his allegiance & protection:

he has plundered our seas, ravaged our coasts, burnt our towns & destroyed the lives of our people:

he is at this time transporting large armies of foreign merce naries to compleat the works of death, desolation & tyranny, already begun with circumstances of cruelty & perfidy unworthy the head of a civilized nation:

he has endeavored to bring on the inhabitants of our frontiers the merciless Indian savages, whose known rule of warfare is an undistinguished destruction of all ages, sexes, & conditions of existence:

he has incited treasonable insurrections in our fellow-subjects, with the allurements of forfeiture & confiscation of our property:

he has waged cruel war against human nature itself, violating it's most sacred rights of life & liberty in the persons of a distant people who never offended him, captivating & carrying them into slavery in another hemisphere, or to incur miserable death in their transportation thither. this piratical warfare, the opprobrium of infidel powers, is the warfare of the CHRISTIAN king of Great Britain. determined to keep open a market where MEN should be bought & sold, he has prostituted his negative for suppressing every legislative attempt to prohibit or to restrain this execrable commerce: and that this assemblage of horrors might want no fact of distinguished die, he is now exciting those very people to rise in arms among us, and to purchase that liberty of which he has deprived them, & murdering the people upon whom he also obtruded them; thus paying off former crimes committed against the liberties of one people, with crimes which he urges them to commit against the lives of another.

in every stage of these oppressions we have petitioned for redress in the most humble terms; our repeated petitions have been answered by repeated injury. a prince whose character is thus marked by every act which may define a tyrant, is unfit to be the ruler of a people who mean to be free. future ages will scarce believe that the hardiness of one man, adventured within the short compass of 12 years only, on so many acts of tyranny without a mask, over a people fostered & fixed in principles of liberty.

Nor have we been wanting in attentions to our British brethren. we have warned them from time to time of attempts by their legislature to extend a jurisdiction over these our states. we have reminded them of the circumstances of our emigration & settlement here, no one of which could warrant so strange a pretension: that these were effected at the expence of our own blood & treasure, unassisted by the wealth or the strength of Great Britain: that in constituting indeed our several forms of government, we had adopted one common king, thereby laying a foundation for perpetual league & amity with them: but that submission to their parliament was no part of our constitution, nor ever in idea, if history may be credited: and we appealed to their native justice & magnanimity, as well as to the ties of our common kindred to disavow these usurpations which were likely to interrupt our correspondence & connection. they too have been deaf to the voice of justice & of consanguinity, & when occasions have been given them, by the regular course of their laws, of removing from their councils the disturbers of our harmony, they have by their free election re-established them in power. at this very time too they are permitting their chief magistrate to send over not only soldiers of our common blood, but Scotch & foreign mercenaries to invade & deluge us in blood. these facts have given the last stab to agonizing affection, and manly spirit bids us to renounce for ever these unfeeling brethren. we must endeavor to forget our former love for them, and to hold them as we hold the rest of mankind, enemies in war, in peace friends. we might have been a free & great people together; but a communication of grandeur & of freedom it seems is below their dignity. be it so, since they will have it: the road to glory & happiness is open to us too; we will climb it in a separate state, and acquiesce in the necessity which pronounces our everlasting Adieu!

We therefore the representatives of the United States of America in General Congress assembled do, in the name & by authority of the good people of these states, reject and renounce a11 allegiance & subjection to the kings of Great Britain & all others who may hereafter claim by, through, or under them; we utterly dissolve & break off a11 political connection which may have heretofore subsisted between us & the people or parliament of Great Britain; and finally we do assert and declare these a colonies to be free and independant states, and that as free & independant states they shall hereafter have power to levy war, conclude peace, contract alliances, establish commerce, & to do all other acts and things which independent states may of right do. And for the support of this declaration we mutually pledge to each other our lives, our fortunes, & our sacred honour.

Source: http://www.loc.gov/exhibits/declara/ruffdrft.html. This is Professor Julian Boyd's reconstruction of Thomas Jefferson's "original Rough draught" of the Declaration of Independence before it was revised by the other members of the Committee of Five and by Congress. From: The Papers of Thomas Jefferson. Vol. 1, 1760-1776. Ed. Julian P. Boyd. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1950, pp 243-247).

Saturday, August 16, 2008

John Dickinson - Conservative Delegate to Second Continental Congress

John Dickinson of Pennsylvania was a delegate to the Second Continental Congress that eventually considered and voted for independence from Great Britain, but not without significant opposition from Dickinson.

Dickinson, a lawyer, was the son of a wealthy farmer who also married into a wealthy family, a Quaker family with Tory sympathies. In fact, Dickinson frequently received pressure from his wife and mother to pursue a position of moderation and against independence. “Johnny,” his mother warned him, “you will be hanged, your estate will be forfeited and confiscated, you will leave your excellent wife a widow, and your charming children orphans, beggars, and infamous.”

He became the leader in Congress for reconciliation, arguing for the Olive Branch petition to King George III. In this role, Dickinson found himself frequently up against Boston lawyer John Adams who was the unofficial leader of the delegates arguing for independence.

Known as "The Farmer" for his 1768 document "Letters from a Farmer in Pennsylvania," Dickinson was probably one of the better known Americans of the times. He was tall and thin. When Adams first met Dickinson on August 31, 1774 as part of the First Continental Congress, he observed that "One would think at first sight that he could not live a month. Yet upon a more attentive inspection, he looks as if the springs of life were strong enough to last many years."

After one particularly passionate series of speeches before Congress by Dickinson first, pushing for a resolution on reconciliation, followed by Adams plea for independence, Dickinson followed Adams into the hall where he harangued him like a schoolboy. After that confrontation, the two men never again spoke privately to one another.

A month or so later, a private letter that Adams had written to a friend in Massachusetts was captured by the British and published in the newspapers, to Adams’ chagrin. In the letter, Adams, still upset about his confrontation with Dickinson, referred to Dickinson as a “piddling genius.” Thereafter, Dickinson refused to even acknowledge Adams’ existence when they passed on the street.

Dickinson eventually refused to sign the Declaration of Independence, left Congress, and enlisted as a private in the Continental Army where he served with distinction. Years later, he was a delegate to the Constitutional Convention of 1787 where he made major contributions.

Friday, August 8, 2008

Andrew McNair - Congressional Doorkeeper


Information about Andrew McNair, the doorkeeper for the First and Second Continental Congress, is sketchy. As the doorkeeper, he would have also had custodial duties, and appears to have been the official bell ringer for the Liberty Bell.

He was probably a Scotch or Scotch-Irish Presbyterian. He lived in Pennsylvania for a long time, but whether he was from some other location before that, we don’t know. We do know that he was married in Pennsylvania in November 1746, and that at least from 1769 to his death in what appears to be early 1777, he lived in the South Ward of Philadelphia and was a property owner at the time of his death. There are no records to indicate when he died or where he is buried. He was also a Freemason.

McNair’s was the official bell ringer of the Liberty Bell for 18 years, from October 16, 1758 until his death in February 1777. The Liberty Bell was rung for important events, such as calling the Pennsylvania Assembly into session, for various protests of British taxes, for the closure of Boston Harbor by the British, and to announce the news of the Battles of Lexington and Concord. The Bell was also rung on July 8, 1776 to announce the public reading of the Declaration of Independence to the citizens of Philadelphia. The records appear to indicate, however, that McNair may not have been the bell ringer on July 8, 1776. The Liberty Bell received its famous crack in 1835 while tolling to announce the death of Chief Justice John Marshall.

Records also describe McNair as the doorkeeper for the Pennsylvania Assembly, a position requiring annual election and appointment by the Assembly. It appears that the doorkeeper and bell ringer duties went together. During the period from 1753 through 1780, McNair was one of only five individuals who held the position of doorkeeper, and he clearly held it for the longest time – 18 years. Generally, the person in this position for the Pennsylvania Assembly would also serve in a similar capacity for the Continental Congress, and thus McNair found himself serving the First and Second Continental Congress. He was appointed as doorkeeper for the First Continental Congress on September 22, 1775. Not only was he the doorkeeper and bell ringer, records indicate that he also was responsible for “cleaning house,” which is perhaps where the musical “1776” gets his title as “Congressional Custodian.” For the 146 days from April 30, 1776 through November 1, 1776, he was paid $118 for his services.

The duties of the doorkeeper appear to have been fairly broad and McNair, as the doorkeeper, would have been responsible for the physical management of the facility that Congress met in. The Second Continental Congress met in the Pennsylvania State House Building, which is today known as Independence Hall.

The information above is from a small book entitled Andrew McNair and the Liberty Bell, by Mary D. Alexander (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1929).

"When we are all hung..."


Benjamin Harrison was a delegate from Virginia to the Second Continental Congress that approved the Declaration of Independence on July 4, 1776. Harrison's son, William Henry Harrison, became the country's 9th President (he died after one month in office) and his great grandson, also Benjamin Harrison, became the nation's 23rd President. Harrison (the delegate to the Second Continental Congress) was 6 foot 4 inches tall and weighed 250 pounds. When he walked up to the table to sign the Declaration of Independence, he made the following comment to his fellow delegate, Elbridge Gerry of Massachusetts:

“I shall have a great advantage over you, Mr. Gerry, when we are all hung for what we are now doing. From the size and weight of my body, I shall die in a few minutes, but from the lightness of your body you will dance in the air for an hour or two before you are dead.”

Thursday, August 7, 2008

Declaration of Independence



Here's the full text of the Declaration of Independence, approved by the delegates to the Second Continental Congress, meeting in Philadelphia, on July 4, 1776. The document was not actually signed on July 4th. Many of the delegates signed it on August 2, 1776, and others signed throughout the summer of 1776.

IN CONGRESS, July 4, 1776.

The unanimous Declaration of the thirteen united States of America,

When in the Course of human events, it becomes necessary for one people to dissolve the political bands which have connected them with another, and to assume among the powers of the earth, the separate and equal station to which the Laws of Nature and of Nature's God entitle them, a decent respect to the opinions of mankind requires that they should declare the causes which impel them to the separation.

We hold these truths to be self-evident, that all men are created equal, that they are endowed by their Creator with certain unalienable Rights, that among these are Life, Liberty and the pursuit of Happiness.--That to secure these rights, Governments are instituted among Men, deriving their just powers from the consent of the governed, --That whenever any Form of Government becomes destructive of these ends, it is the Right of the People to alter or to abolish it, and to institute new Government, laying its foundation on such principles and organizing its powers in such form, as to them shall seem most likely to effect their Safety and Happiness. Prudence, indeed, will dictate that Governments long established should not be changed for light and transient causes; and accordingly all experience hath shewn, that mankind are more disposed to suffer, while evils are sufferable, than to right themselves by abolishing the forms to which they are accustomed. But when a long train of abuses and usurpations, pursuing invariably the same Object evinces a design to reduce them under absolute Despotism, it is their right, it is their duty, to throw off such Government, and to provide new Guards for their future security.--Such has been the patient sufferance of these Colonies; and such is now the necessity which constrains them to alter their former Systems of Government. The history of the present King of Great Britain is a history of repeated injuries and usurpations, all having in direct object the establishment of an absolute Tyranny over these States. To prove this, let Facts be submitted to a candid world.

  • He has refused his Assent to Laws, the most wholesome and necessary for the public good.
  • He has forbidden his Governors to pass Laws of immediate and pressing importance, unless suspended in their operation till his Assent should be obtained; and when so suspended, he has utterly neglected to attend to them.
  • He has refused to pass other Laws for the accommodation of large districts of people, unless those people would relinquish the right of Representation in the Legislature, a right inestimable to them and formidable to tyrants only.
  • He has called together legislative bodies at places unusual, uncomfortable, and distant from the depository of their public Records, for the sole purpose of fatiguing them into compliance with his measures.
  • He has dissolved Representative Houses repeatedly, for opposing with manly firmness his invasions on the rights of the people.
  • He has refused for a long time, after such dissolutions, to cause others to be elected; whereby the Legislative powers, incapable of Annihilation, have returned to the People at large for their exercise; the State remaining in the mean time exposed to all the dangers of invasion from without, and convulsions within.
  • He has endeavoured to prevent the population of these States; for that purpose obstructing the Laws for Naturalization of Foreigners; refusing to pass others to encourage their migrations hither, and raising the conditions of new Appropriations of Lands.
  • He has obstructed the Administration of Justice, by refusing his Assent to Laws for establishing Judiciary powers.
  • He has made Judges dependent on his Will alone, for the tenure of their offices, and the amount and payment of their salaries.
  • He has erected a multitude of New Offices, and sent hither swarms of Officers to harrass our people, and eat out their substance.
  • He has kept among us, in times of peace, Standing Armies without the Consent of our legislatures.
  • He has affected to render the Military independent of and superior to the Civil power.
  • He has combined with others to subject us to a jurisdiction foreign to our constitution, and unacknowledged by our laws; giving his Assent to their Acts of pretended Legislation:
    • For Quartering large bodies of armed troops among us:
    • For protecting them, by a mock Trial, from punishment for any Murders which they should commit on the Inhabitants of these States:
    • For cutting off our Trade with all parts of the world:
    • For imposing Taxes on us without our Consent:
    • For depriving us in many cases, of the benefits of Trial by Jury:
    • For transporting us beyond Seas to be tried for pretended offences
    • For abolishing the free System of English Laws in a neighbouring Province, establishing therein an Arbitrary government, and enlarging its Boundaries so as to render it at once an example and fit instrument for introducing the same absolute rule into these Colonies:
    • For taking away our Charters, abolishing our most valuable Laws, and altering fundamentally the Forms of our Governments:
    • For suspending our own Legislatures, and declaring themselves invested with power to legislate for us in all cases whatsoever.

  • He has abdicated Government here, by declaring us out of his Protection and waging War against us.
  • He has plundered our seas, ravaged our Coasts, burnt our towns, and destroyed the lives of our people.
  • He is at this time transporting large Armies of foreign Mercenaries to compleat the works of death, desolation and tyranny, already begun with circumstances of Cruelty & perfidy scarcely paralleled in the most barbarous ages, and totally unworthy the Head of a civilized nation.
  • He has constrained our fellow Citizens taken Captive on the high Seas to bear Arms against their Country, to become the executioners of their friends and Brethren, or to fall themselves by their Hands.
  • He has excited domestic insurrections amongst us, and has endeavoured to bring on the inhabitants of our frontiers, the merciless Indian Savages, whose known rule of warfare, is an undistinguished destruction of all ages, sexes and conditions.

In every stage of these Oppressions We have Petitioned for Redress in the most humble terms: Our repeated Petitions have been answered only by repeated injury. A Prince whose character is thus marked by every act which may define a Tyrant, is unfit to be the ruler of a free people.

Nor have We been wanting in attentions to our British brethren. We have warned them from time to time of attempts by their legislature to extend an unwarrantable jurisdiction over us. We have reminded them of the circumstances of our emigration and settlement here. We have appealed to their native justice and magnanimity, and we have conjured them by the ties of our common kindred to disavow these usurpations, which, would inevitably interrupt our connections and correspondence. They too have been deaf to the voice of justice and of consanguinity. We must, therefore, acquiesce in the necessity, which denounces our Separation, and hold them, as we hold the rest of mankind, Enemies in War, in Peace Friends.

We, therefore, the Representatives of the united States of America, in General Congress, Assembled, appealing to the Supreme Judge of the world for the rectitude of our intentions, do, in the Name, and by Authority of the good People of these Colonies, solemnly publish and declare, That these United Colonies are, and of Right ought to be Free and Independent States; that they are Absolved from all Allegiance to the British Crown, and that all political connection between them and the State of Great Britain, is and ought to be totally dissolved; and that as Free and Independent States, they have full Power to levy War, conclude Peace, contract Alliances, establish Commerce, and to do all other Acts and Things which Independent States may of right do. And for the support of this Declaration, with a firm reliance on the protection of divine Providence, we mutually pledge to each other our Lives, our Fortunes and our sacred Honor.

Georgia: Button Gwinnett, Lyman Hall, George Walton

North Carolina: William Hooper, Joseph Hewes, John Penn

South Carolina: Edward Rutledge, Thomas Heyward, Jr., Thomas Lynch, Jr., Arthur Middleton

Maryland: Samuel Chase, William Paca, Thomas Stone, Charles Carroll of Carrollton

Virginia: George Wythe, Richard Henry Lee, Thomas Jefferson; Benjamin Harrison, Thomas Nelson, Jr., Francis Lightfoot Lee, Carter Braxton

Pennsylvania: Robert Morris, Benjamin Rush, Benjamin Franklin, John Morton, George Clymer, James Smith, George Taylor, James Wilson, George Ross

Delaware: Caesar Rodney, George Read, Thomas McKean

New York: William Floyd, Philip Livingston, Francis Lewis, Lewis Morris

New Jersey: Richard Stockton, John Witherspoon, Francis Hopkinson, John Hart, Abraham Clark

New Hampshire: Josiah Bartlett, William Whipple

Massachusetts: John Hancock, Samuel Adams, John Adams, Robert Treat Paine; Elbridge Gerry

Rhode Island: Stephen Hopkins, William Ellery

Connecticut: Roger Sherman, Samuel Huntington, William Williams, Oliver Wolcott

New Hampshire: Matthew Thornton

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